What is SPSS?

SPSS is short for Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, and it’s used by various kinds of researchers for complex statistical data analysis.

The SPSS software package was created for the management and statistical analysis of social science data. It was originally launched in 1968 by SPSS Inc. and was later acquired by IBM in 2009. 

Officially dubbed IBM SPSS Statistics, most users still refer to it as SPSS. As the world standard for social science data analysis, SPSS is widely coveted due it’s straightforward and English-like command language and impressively thorough user manual. 

SPSS is used by market researchers, health researchers, survey companies, government entities, education researchers, marketing organizations, data miners, and many more for the processing and analyzing of survey data. 

While SurveyGizmo has powerful built-in reporting features, when it comes to in-depth statistical analysis researchers consider SPSS the best-in-class solution. 

Most top research agencies use SPSS to analyze survey data and mine text data so that they can get the most out of their research projects.

The Core Functions of SPSS

SPSS offers four programs that assist researchers with their complex data analysis needs.

Statistics Program

SPSS’s Statistics program provides a plethora of basic statistical functions, some of which include frequencies, cross-tabulation, and bivariate statistics.

Modeler Program

SPSS’s Modeler program enables researchers to build and validate predictive models using advanced statistical procedures.

Text Analytics for Surveys Program

SPSS’s Text Analytics for Surveys program helps survey administrators uncover powerful insights from responses to open-ended survey questions.

Visualization Designer

SPSS’s Visualization Designer program allows researchers to use their data to create a wide variety of visuals like density charts and radial boxplots with ease.

In addition to the four programs mentioned above, SPSS also provides solutions for data management, which allow researchers to perform case selection, create derived data, and perform file reshaping. 

SPSS also offers the feature solution of data documentation, which allows researchers to store a metadata dictionary. This metadata dictionary acts as a centralized repository of information pertaining to data such as meaning, relationships to other data, origin, usage, and format.

There are a handful of statistical methods that can be leveraged in SPSS, including: 

• Descriptive statistics, including methodologies such as frequencies, cross-tabulation, and descriptive ratio statistics.

• Bivariate statistics, including methodologies such as analysis of variance (ANOVA), means, correlation, and nonparametric tests.

• Numeral outcome prediction such as linear regression.

• Prediction for identifying groups, including methodologies such as cluster analysis and factor analysis.


The Benefits of Using SPSS for Survey Data Analysis

Thanks to its emphasis on analyzing statistical data, SPSS is an extremely powerful tool for manipulating and deciphering survey data. 

Fun fact: The data from any survey collected via SurveyGizmo can be exported to SPSS for detailed analysis.

Exporting survey data to SPSS’s proprietary .SAV format makes the process of pulling, manipulating, and analyzing data clean and easy.

By doing so, SPSS will automatically set up and import designated variable names, variable types, titles, and value labels, meaning that minimal legwork is required from researchers.

Once survey data is exported to SPSS, the opportunities for statistical analysis are practically endless. 

In short, remember to use SPSS when you need a flexible, customizable way to get super granular on even the most complex data sets. This gives you, the researcher, more time to do what you do best and identify trends, develop predictive models, and draw informed conclusions.  

For more information on the benefits of using SPSS to conduct survey data analysis, here are some helpful resources: 

• SurveyGizmo’s SPSS Export Documentation

• Creating and Manipulating Survey Variables Using SPSS

• SPSS Variable and Value Totals: A Quick Tutorial

• SPSS Analysis Tips: The Temporary Command

• SPSS Expert: the Recording States into Regions Using SPSS

• Converting Survey Variables with SPSS Syntax

link: https://www.surveygizmo.com/resources/blog/what-is-spss/

APA Changes 6th Edition

Levels of Heading

Headings are used to help guide the reader through a document. The levels are organized by levels of subordination, and each section of the paper should start with the highest level of heading.

Fifth Edition (Section 3.31 in the APA manual)

APA Headings
Level	Format
1	CENTERED UPPERCASE HEADINGS
2	Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Headings
3	Centered, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Headings
4	Left-aligned, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Side Heading
5	Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period.

Sixth Edition (3.03)

APA Headings
Level	Format
1	Centered, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Headings
2	Left-aligned, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
3	Indented, boldface, lowercase heading with a period.
4	Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase heading with a period.
5	Indented, italicized, lowercase heading with a period.

For example, in a scientific report following APA style, a report contains three sections: Method, Results, and Discussion. Each of these sections start with level 1 headings:

Methods (Level 1)

Site of Study (Level 2)

Participant Population (Level 2)

Teachers. (Level 3)

Students. (Level 3)

Results (Level 1)

Spatial Ability (Level 2)

Test one. (level 3)

Teachers with experience. (Level 4)

Teachers in training. (Level 4)

Test two. (Level 3)

Kinesthetic Ability (Level 2)

Reducing Bias in Language (3.11)

Using precise language is expected in scientific writing, and the sixth edition offers new ways in which to talk about research participants (note that “subjects” is still an acceptable term to use, but “participants” is more representative of the individuals’ roles in the research project).

Refer to participants at the appropriate level of specificity. The manual provides the example of using women and men to refer to all human beings instead of only using man. Man is appropriate to use when referring to one man but not when referring to a population that includes men and women. 

Refer to participants how they wish to be called. Try to avoid labels if possible, but if this is not avoidable, be respectful. Focus on the people and not the label. For example, instead of labeling a group “the elderly" or "the arthritic," labels in which individuals are lost, try “older adults" or "a woman with arthritis."

Acknowledge participants’ participation while still following the rules in your field. For example, a cognitive psychology student might use the term “subjects” in her research report, but a nursing student might use the term “patients” to refer to those who participated in his research. Whatever term you choose to use, be sure you are consistent throughout your paper and with your field’s guidelines.

The Mechanics of Style

Spacing (4.01). Regarding punctuation in manuscript drafts, APA suggests using two spaces after periods ending sentences to aid readability.

One space: “Previous research shows that patients are interested in palliative care. This research project explores how to discuss palliative care with patients.”

Two spaces: “Previous research shows that patients are interested in palliative care.  This research project explores how to discuss palliative care with patients.”

Approximations (4.31-32). Use words to express approximations of days, months, and year. 

“I started spelunking about four years ago.”

Reporting statistics (4.35, 44, and 10). Use a zero before the decimal point with numbers less than one when the statistic can be greater than one.

0.56 kg

Do not use a zero before the decimal point when the number cannot be greater than one.

r = .015

Include effect sizes and confidence intervals with statistics. This will allow the reader to more fully understand the conducted analyses.

Use brackets to group together confidence interval limits in both the body text and tables (5.15).

“95% Cls [-7.2, 4.3], [9.2, 12.4], and [-1.2, -0.5]” (p. 94)

Displaying Results

The sixth edition includes a section (5.01) on the purpose of displaying data. This section can help you decide when and how to display your data. For example, your data might show that you are exploring data and information, or your data may serve a storage purpose for later retrieval.

More than likely, though, your data will serve either a communication purpose to show you have discovered meaning in data and you want to show/communicate to others this meaning. 

Figures. Figures include graphs, charts, maps, drawings, and photographs. As a general rule, only include figures when they add to the value of the paper. If the figure merely repeats what is written in the paper, do not include it, as it does not add any new information to the paper. 

The sixth edition also emphasizes the importance of clearly labeling electrophysiological, radiological, and genetic data.

References

Direct Quotations (6.01-21)

The sixth edition provides explicit rules for direct quotations and states that you must credit the source when “paraphrasing, quoting an author directly, or describing an idea that influenced your work” (p. 170).

If the quotation is less than 40 words, incorporate the quotation into the text and place quotation marks round the quotation. Cite the source immediately after the quotation and continue with the sentence.

Porter (1998) has stated that, “The internetworked classroom has the potential (not yet realized) to empower students” (p. 5), and this research project examines this potential.

If the quotation you are using falls at the end of the sentence, enclose the quotation with quotation marks without including the quotation’s original punctuation. Here’s a sentence as it appears in the original text:

“Semantic frames/domains represent one of the two major organizing principles for conceptual structure” (Croft & Cruse, 2004, p. 32).

Here’s what the sentence looks like when quoted within a text:

In arguing for frame semantics, Croft and Cruse (2004) asserted, “Semantic frames/domains represent one of the two major organizing principles for conceptual structure” (p. 32).

If the quotation has more than 40 words, use a block quotation. Begin the quotation on a new line and indent a half-inch from the left margin. Double-space the entire quotation, and at the end of the quotation, provide citation information after the final punctuation mark.

John Nicholson (1820) anticipated this effect when discussing farming methods in the nineteenth century:

Perhaps it would be well, if some institution were devised, and supported at the expense of the State, which would be so organized as would tend most effectually to produce a due degree of emulation among Farmers, by rewards and honorary distinctions conferred by those who, by their successful experimetnal efforts and improvements, should render themselves duly entitled to them. (p. 92)

The Reference List

References that appear in the text must appear in the references list in alphabetical order by the author’s last name, with the exception of personal communication; only cite personal communication in the text, not in the reference list. 

Electronic sources (6.31). Because electronic publishing has become a standard in research, the sixth edition provides an overview of electronic sources and how to reference them, specifically with URLs and DOIs.

URLs, more commonly known as a web address, locate information housed on the Internet. The fifth edition specified that references to electronic sources should refer to the article’s or document’s URL. However, they are prone to “breaking” or deleting, and to resolve issues associated with the unstable nature of URLs, publishers have started using DOIs with articles. 

For more details on how to cite electronic sources with following the sixth edition, consult your APA manual or the OWL’s resource on citing electronic sources.

While citing from a webpage, you may not be able to find a page number to refer to, i.e., there is no pagination. Instead, refer to the paragraph number from which you are citing where you would usually insert a page number by using “para.” instead of “p.”. Be sure to include the author’s/s’ name/s and year, too, if applicable.

“The Purdue University Writing Lab and Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL) assist clients in their development as writers—no matter what their skill level—with on-campus consultations, online participation, and community engagement” (Purdue OWL, 2010, “Mission,” para. 1

LLink: https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/apa_changes_6th_edition.html

                  UNDERESTANDING THE CASE STUDY 

The term case study refers to both a method of analysis and a specific research design for examining a problem, both of which are used in most circumstances to generalize across populations. This tab focuses on the latter--how to design and organize a research paper in the social sciences that analyzes a specific case.

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or among more than two subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Reference:

https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/casestudy

Research proposal

A written presentation of an intended study specifying the title, background of the study, the statement of the problem, research purpose, and objectives, research questions / hypotheses, justification / significance of the study, scope and the coverage of the study. It also includes the literature about the study as well as the methodology that will be used to collect, analyse and interpret the results as well as the references, budget and work plan.  (15 pages for Masters and 25 pages) as it teaches summary skills in students.

Title of the study

It should be the summery of the study. It should indicate both the dependent and the independent variables. It should be accurate and clearly reflect the scope and the content of the study. It should be concise so as to make one understand the way its variables interrelate. Its key words should be its key variables. It must be meaningful and academic in nature. It should be sufficiently original and should not have any object able duplication. It should not be more than 20 words.

Background of the study

It is a rational of the study providing the evidence and conditions of the exiting situations to make the reader feel the urgency of the problem and the need to study it in order to solve it or contribute to its solution and it should be about 600 words.

Statement of the problem

This refers to the problem that has been detected and needs a solution in practical or theoretical world. It should clearly state the nature of the problem and its known or estimated magnitude / extend. It should provide real problem and not situations surrounding the problem. The student should state in concrete terms the exact problem that exists within specified area of interest. It should indicate the elements which constitute variables identified under the conceptual back ground and it should indicate how such elements interact to cause a problem. There must be evidence that the stated problem is rooted into back ground. The statement should be focused and should have indications of logical, sequential and coherent presentations and it should not be more than one page.

General Objective

This refers to the general intention of the research. It should clearly spell out what the research is supposed to achieve. The purpose should not be a reproduction of the title but should be a summary of the statement of the problem.

Specific Objectives of the study

These are the aims that arise directly from the general objective of the study. For each objective you must have a method that you will use to attempt to achieve it. Consider the following;

a. Are the objectives rooted in the problem statement

b. Do they match with the elements which constitute the problem area

c. Do they measure such elements against what is ideal

d. Can they be testable

e. Are they stated in a form which portrays them as objectives (SMART)

f. Are they arranged in a coherent manner

Research Hypothesis

These are investigative assumptions that guide the study. These are tentative gasses about whatever is being studied. They emanate from statement of the problems. They are ideas or guess works to be subjected to the process of confirmation or verification at P≤0.05. They should be testable and should be harmonized with objectives of the study. They should be stated in a manner that will attract intended data and should not be ambiguous.

Some forms of hypothesis include;

a. The administrative style in early missionary schools was authoritarian

b. Boys perform better than girls in Mathematics in secondary schools

c. Children’s intellectual ability is related to their athletic ability

d. Poor performance in Introductory Computer Technology is due to poor academic qualifications of the Introductory Computer Technology teachers

Scope of the study

Scope provides the boundary of the research in terms of content, sample size as well as geographical and theoretical framework.

Significance / justification of the study

This refers to the relevance of the study in terms of some academic contributions and practical use that might be made of the findings. It should reflect on the knowledge creation, technology used or the socioeconomic value to the community. It should indicate for whom the researcher is important to and its value to other groups of people. The ways in which the findings of the study can advance knowledge in discipline should be stated.

RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is defined as a framework of methods and techniques chosen by a researcher to combine various components of research in a reasonably logical manner so that the research problem is efficiently handled. It provides insights about “how” to conduct research using a particular methodology. Every researcher has a list of research questions which need to be assessed – this can be done with research design.

The sketch of how research should be conducted can be prepared using research design. Hence, the market research study will be carried out on the basis of research design.

The design of a research topic is used to explain the type of research (experimental, survey, correlational, semi-experimental, review) and also its sub-type (experimental design, research problem, descriptive case-study). There are three main sections of research design: Data collection, measurement, and analysis.

The type of research problem an organization is facing will determine the research design and not vice-versa. Variables, designated tools to gather information, how will the tools be used to collect and analyze data and other factors are decided in research design on the basis of a research technique is decided.

An impactful research design usually creates minimum bias in data and increases trust on the collected and analyzed research information. Research design which produces the least margin of error in experimental research can be touted as the best. The essential elements of research design are:

1. Accurate purpose statement of research design
2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting details for research
3. Method applied for analyzing collected details
4. Type of research methodology
5. Probable objections for research
6. Settings for research study
7. Timeline
8. Measurement of analysis

Research Design Characteristics

There are four key characteristics of research design:

Neutrality: The results projected in research design should be free from bias and neutral. Understand opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusion from multiple individuals and consider those who agree with the derived results.

Reliability: If a research is conducted on a regular basis, the researcher involved expects similar results to be calculated every time. Research design should indicate how the research questions can be formed to ensure the standard of obtained results and this can happen only when the research design is reliable.

Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available for research design but valid measuring tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the objective of research and nothing else. The questionnairedeveloped from this research design will be then valid.

Generalization: The outcome of research design should be applicable to a population and not just a restricted sample. Generalization is one of the key characteristics of research design.

Types of Research Design

A researcher must have a clear understanding of the various types of research design to select which type of research design to implement for a study. Research design can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research design.

Qualitative Research Design: Qualitative research is implemented in cases where a relationship between collected data and observation is established on the basis of mathematical calculations. Theories related to a naturally existing phenomenon can be proved or disproved using mathematical calculations. Researchers rely on qualitative research design where they are expected to conclude “why” a particular theory exists along with “what” respondents have to say about it.

Quantitative Research Design:Quantitative research is implemented in cases where it is important for a researcher to have statistical conclusions to collect actionable insights. Numbers provide a better perspective to make important business decisions. Quantitative research design is important for the growth of any organization because any conclusion drawn on the basis of numbers and analysis will only prove to be effective for the business.  

Further, research design can be divided into five types –

1. Descriptive Research Design: In a descriptive research design, a researcher is solely interested in describing the situation or case under his/her research study. It is a theory-based research design which is created by gather, analyze and presents collected data. By implementing an in-depth research design such as this, a researcher can provide insights into the why and how of research.  

2. Experimental Research Design:Experimental research design is used to establish a relationship between the cause and effect of a situation. It is a causal research design where the effect caused by the independent variable on the dependent variable is observed. For example, the effect of an independent variable such as price on a dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty is monitored. It is a highly practical research design method as it contributes towards solving a problem at hand. The independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent variable. It is often used in social sciences to observe human behavior by analyzing two groups – affect of one group on the other.

3. Correlational Research Design:Correlational research is a non-experimental research design technique which helps researchers to establish a relationship between two closely connected variables. Two different groups are required to conduct this research design method. There is no assumption while evaluating a relationship between two different variables and statistical analysis techniques are used to calculate the relationship between them.

Correlation between two variables is concluded using a correlation coefficient, whose value ranges between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a positive relationship between the variables and -1 indicates a negative relationship between the two variables.  

4. Diagnostic Research Design: In the diagnostic research design, a researcher is inclined towards evaluating the root cause of a specific topic. Elements that contribute towards a troublesome situation are evaluated in this research design method.

There are three parts of diagnostic research design:

• Inception of the issue
• Diagnosis of the issue
• Solution for the issue

5. Explanatory Research Design: In exploratory research design, the researcher’s ideas and thoughts are key as it is primarily dependent on their personal inclination about a particular topic. Explanation about unexplored aspects of a subject is provided along with details about what, how and why related to the research questions.

useful links:

https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/researchdesigns

https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185902